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Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series

Akinori KITSUKI and Takeshi SAKURAI, Hitotsubashi University, are the authors of the working paper titled"
WP2008-001 Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series No. 2008-001

Synthesis of Soil Management Options for Better Targeting of Technologies and Ecological Resilience under Variable Environmental Conditions

Moses Mwale (Zambia Agriculture Research Institute)

(March 2008)
Abstract

Working Paper No. 2008-001 Download PDF (320KB)

WP2008-002 Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series No. 2008-002

Impact of 2004/2005 Drought on Zambia’s Agricultural Production: Preliminary Results

Thamana Lekprichakul (Research Institute for Humanity and Nature)

(March 2008)
Abstract

Working Paper No. 2008-002 Download PDF (270KB)

WP2008-003 Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series No. 2008-003

Vulnerability and Resilience of Rural Society in Zambia: From the View Point of Land Tenure and Food Security

Gear M. Kajoba (Department of Geography, University of Zambia)

(March 2008)
Abstract

Working Paper No. 2008-003 Download PDF (340KB)

WP2008-004 Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series No. 2008-004

Socio-Ecological Vulnerability and Resilience in an Arena of Rapid Environmental Change: Community Adaptation to Climate Variability in the Upper Zambezi Floodplain

Lawrence S. Flint (Enda Tiers Monde-Programme Energie Dakar, Senegal)

(June 2008)
Abstract

Working Paper No. 2008-004 Download PDF (2.5MB)

WP2008-005 Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series No. 2008-005

The Livelihood of ‘Escarpment Tonga’: A Case Study of One Village, Southern Zambia

Tetsuya NAKAMURA (Graduate School of Asian and African Area Studies, Kyoto University)

(January 2009)

Abstract

Working Paper No. 2008-005 Download PDF (997KB)

WP2008-006 Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series No. 2008-006

Re-thinking Labour Migration in Relation to Livelihood Diversity in African Rural Area: A Case Study in Southern Province, Zambia

Chihiro ITO (Graduate School of Asian and African Area Studies, Kyoto University)

(January 2009)
Abstract

Working Paper No. 2008-006 Download PDF (690KB)

WP2009-007 Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series No. 2009-007

Rural Livelihood Security Assessment for Smallholders Undergoing Economic Changes and Agro-Climatic Events in Central Kenya

Matheaus Kioko KAUTI (Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Tohoku University)

(April 2009)
Abstract
Working Paper No. 2009-007 Download PDF (480KB)
WP2009-008 Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series No. 2009-008

Quantifying the Impact of Climatic Change on Yields and Yield Variability of Major Crops and Optimal Land Allocation for Maximizing Food Production in Different Agro-Climatic Zones of Tamil Nadu, India: An Econometric Approach

C.R. RANGANATHAN (Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India)

(August 2009)
Abstract
Working Paper No. 2009-008 Download PDF (1.85MB)
WP2009-009 Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series No. 2009-009

Vulnerability of Food Production Systems of Small-Scale Farmers to Climate Change in Southern Zambia: A Search for Adaptive Strategies

Gear M. Kajoba (Department of Geography, University of Zambia)

(December 2009)
Abstract
Working Paper No. 2009-009 Download PDF (678KB)
WP2009-010 Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series No. 2009-010

Resilience of Rural Households and Communities to Economic Shocks, HIV/AIDS and Recurrent Droughts: The Case of Households and Communities in the Mwami Area, Chipata, Zambia

Chileshe Mulenga (Institute of Economic and Social Research, University of Zambia)

(December 2009)
Abstract
Working Paper No. 2009-010 Download PDF (353KB)
WP2009-011 Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series No. 2009-011

An Historical Analysis of Vulnerability and Resilience in a Semi-Arid Region of Zambia

Bennett Siamwiinde Siamwiza (Department of History, University of Zambia)

(December 2009)
Abstract
Working Paper No. 2009-011 Download PDF (228KB)
WP2009-012 Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series No. 2009-012

Ecological Adversity and Food Supply in Northwest Zambia

Chewe M. Chabatama (Department of History, University of Zambia)

(December 2009)
Abstract
Working Paper No. 2009-012 Download PDF (184KB)
WP2011-013 Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series No. 2011-013

Resilience as a Way of Life in Gwembe Valley

Elizabeth Colson, Professor Emerita (University of California at Berkeley)

(May 2011)
Abstract
Working Paper No. 2011-013 Download PDF (170KB)
WP2011-014 Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series No. 2011-014

Diversified Livelihood of Peasant Women in Southern Zambia

Noriko NARISAWA, Graduate School of Asian and African Area Studies (ASAFAS), Kyoto University

(October 2011)
Abstract
Working Paper No. 2011-014 Download PDF (209KB)
WP2012-015 Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series No. 2012-015

The Importance of Sweet Potatoes in Rural Villages in Southern Province, Zambia

Hidetoshi MIYAZAKI, Yudai ISHIMOTO and Ueru TANAKA, Research Institute for Humanity and Nature

(March 2012)
Abstract
Working Paper No. 2012-015 Download PDF (948KB)
WP2012-016 Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series No. 2012-016

Historical Change of Neighborhood Community and Marriage Range of Gwembe Tonga in Southern Zambia

Yudai ISHIMOTO and Hidetoshi MIYAZAKI, Research Institute for Humanity and Nature

(March 2012)
Abstract
Working Paper No. 2012-016 Download PDF (842KB)
WP2012-017 Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series No. 2012-017

Nutrient Intake, Physical Activity, and Travel Patterns of Adults Living in Contrasting Ecological Zones in Rural Zambia during the Less Labor-intensive Season for Farming

Sayuri KON1, Thamana LEKPRICHAKUL2, and Taro YAMAUCHI1,

1Hokkaido University,
2Research Institute for Humanity and Nature

(March 2012)
Abstract
Working Paper No. 2012-017 Download PDF (786KB)
WP2012-018 Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series No. 2012-018

Consumption Smoothing and the Role of Wild Food Items in Rural Zambia

Akinori KITSUKI and Takeshi SAKURAI, Hitotsubashi University

(March 2012)
Abstract
Working Paper No. 2012-018 Download PDF (301KB)
WP2014-019 Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series No. 2014-019

Dietary Habit of Rural Tonga in Southern Province, Zambia : The Seasonal, Locational Transition

Takehiro YAMAMOTO 1, Yudai ISHIMOTO 2, Hidetoshi MIYAZAKI 3, Chieko UMETSU 4,
1 The Centre for African Area Studies, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan,
2 Tottori University, Tottori, Japan,
3 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature (RIHN), Kyoto, Japan,
4 Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan

(August 2014)
Abstract
Working Paper No. 2014-019 Download PDF (902KB)

Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series

No. 2008-001

Synthesis of Soil Management Options for Better Targeting of Technologies and Ecological Resilience under Variable Environmental Conditions

Moses Mwale
Zambia Agriculture Research Institute

March 2008

ABSTRACT
Lack of access to food and its availability is of central concern in Africa and a fundamental challenge for human welfare and economic growth. Low agricultural production results in low incomes, poor nutrition, vulnerability to risks and lack of empowerment. The New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) targets an average annual increase of 6% in agricultural productivity to ensure food security and sustained national economies. Land degradation and soil fertility or nutrient depletion are considered as the major threats to food security and natural resource conservation in the semi arid tropics (SAT). What is needed is to break the cycle between poverty and land degradation in Africa by employing strategies that empower farmers economically and promoting sustainable agricultural intensification using efficient, effective and affordable agricultural technologies. Such affordable management systems should be accessible to the poor, small-scale producers and the approach should be holistic and dynamic in order to foster both technical and institutional change. This paper aims to increase the dissemination of our knowledge base on soils and its management in Zambia. This includes issues of soil conservation and conservation farming. The main activities being to: inventories available technologies for alleviating land degradation and how to demonstrate and adapt the best-bets in farmers’ circumstances using farmer participatory approaches; scale up best bet technologies for sustainable land management and marketing options through the use of appropriate tools, methods and strategies; and to study the resulting ecological resilience under variable environmental conditions.

要旨
食料へのアクセスの不足と食料供給量の不足はアフリカでの主要な問題であり、 人間の福祉と経済成長のための基本的な課題である。低農業生産は、低所得、栄養不足、 リスクへの脆弱性、エンパワーメントの欠如をもたらす。アフリカ開発のための新パー トナーシップ(NEPAD)は、食糧安全保障と持続的国家経済を確保するために年間平均6% の農業生産性の増加が目標である。土地荒廃と土壌肥沃度の枯渇、すなわち土壌養分の 枯渇が、半乾燥熱帯(SAT)での食糧安全保障と自然資源保全に対する大きな脅威である とかんがえられている。アフリカでは、農民に経済力を与えること、効率的で、有効な、 手頃な農業技術を用いて持続的な農業集約化を推進することによって、貧困と土地荒廃 の間にあるサイクルを壊すことが必要である。そのような手頃な管理システムは貧しく、 小規模な生産者にとって利用しやすく、そのアプローチは技術的、制度的な変化を促進 するために全体論的でありダイナミックでなければならない。 本論文は、ザンビアで の土壌とその管理に基づく知識を普及することが目標である。土壌保全と保全型農業の 問題を含んでいる。主な取り組みは、1.土地荒廃を軽減するのに利用可能な技術を棚 卸しすること、そして農民参加型アプローチから農民の事情を踏まえた最善の策をどの ように示し、適用するかということ、2.適切なツール、方法、戦略の利用を通じて持 続的な土地管理やマーケティングオプションのための最善の策を拡大すること、3.環 境変動下で結果として生じる生態レジリアンスを研究することである

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Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series

No. 2008-002

Impact of 2004/2005 Drought on Zambia’s Agricultural Production: Preliminary Results

Thamana Lekprichakul
Research Institute for Humanity and Nature

March 2008

Abstract
This paper examined the extents of Zambia’s crop losses resulting from the 2004/2005 agricultural droughts and how the impacts were distributed among different cropping systems. The drought analysis is based on the Post Harvest Survey of 2003/2004 and 2004/2005 agricultural seasons, conducted annually by the Central Statistical Office (CSO). The results indicated that the 2004/2005 agricultural drought may have been more serious than initially thought. The extents of crop damages were comparable to the severest drought in recent history in 1991/1992 agricultural season. This was due largely to a rapid expansion of cultivated areas in the 2004/2005 of approximately 50% over the 2003/2004 season. The yield losses of staple crops were similar in their extent around 40%, 50% and 60% for millet, maize and sorghum respectively. It was observed that drought-resistant crops like millet and sorghum suffered greater crop losses than did the maize, particularly in southern province. This peculiar characteristic may have been a result of non-climatic factors that exacerbate the damages to the crops. Farmers responded with various coping strategies ranging from engaging in petty trades, skipping meals, eating wild foods, migration, to desperate measures such as stealing and prostitution.

Key words: Drought impact analysis, Agricultural drought, Food security, Yield losses.

要旨
本稿では、2004/2005年農作期旱魃から、ザンビアの農業収量の損害を調査し、 損害がどの様に異なる生産システムに分布していたかを検討する。旱魃の分析はザ ンビア中央統計局(CSO)が毎年実施している2003/2004年と2004/2005年の農作期の 収穫後調査に基づいている。分析の結果から、2004/2005年の農作期旱魃は当初推計 されたものより深刻であった可能性がある。穀物の損害は近年最大の旱魃であった 1991/1992年農作期に匹敵するものであった。これは、主に2003/2004年に比較して 50%増加した2004/2005年の急速な耕作面積の拡大によるものであった。主食穀物の 収量損害はミレットで40% 、メイズで50%、ソルガムで 60%にものぼった。旱魃に 耐性のあると考えられているミレットとソルガムはメイズより特に南部州で損失が 大きかった。この不可解な現象は損害を拡大した気候以外の要因によるものかもし れない。農民は小規模な売買への従事、食事の回数減少、野生植物の摂取、移住か ら、窃盗、売春までさまざまな対処戦略によって旱魃に対応していた。

キーワード:旱魃影響分析、農業的旱魃、食料安全保障、収穫被害
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Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series

No. 2008-003

Vulnerability and Resilience of Rural Society in Zambia: From the View Point of Land Tenure and Food Security

Gear M. Kajoba
Department of Geography, University of Zambia

March 2008

ABSTRACT
The paper shows that pre-colonial ecologies of agricultural systems in some parts of rural Zambia were sustainable and resilient to prevailing environmental conditions, and were therefore able to ensure relative food security, under communal land tenure.
However, colonial policies of land alienation and labour migration impacted negatively on food production systems of some ethnic groups like the citemene system of the Bemba and the flood plain cultivation system of the Lozi, making them extremely vulnerable due to the absence of large numbers of males. Paradoxically, the Tonga people in Southern Zambia responded positively to the introduction of modern methods of cultivation, exhibiting resilience by adapting and adopting the cultivation of hybrid maize and the ox-drawn plough. They also began to transform their land tenure system from being communal to become increasingly individualised.
At independence in 1964, the UNIP government intervened strongly in promoting rural development (1964-1990), by subsidising maize production and by implementing protectionist policies to maintain communal tenure. However, food security could not be guaranteed, and the policies led to over dependence of small-scale farmers on government and on maize at the expense of other food crops.
The introduction of neo-liberal policies (from 1991 to 2001) by the MMD government coupled with adverse weather conditions, made food production systems rather vulnerable to both policy and environmental shocks. However, efforts are being made (from 2001- to date) with the assistance of cooperating partners or the international community, the United Nations System and Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs), to continue with land tenure empowerment policies to ensure secure land tenure for both men and women, and make targeted interventions with partial subsidies to rebuild the resilience of rural society, so as to promote national and household food security.

Key Words: Vulnerability, Resilience, Land Tenure, Food Security

要旨
植民地前のザンビア農村社会では、農業システム生態系は一般的な環境条件に対し 持続的かつレジリアントであり、従来の共同体的な土地保有の下で食料安全が保証さ れた。
しかし、植民地政策による労働移動と土地分配により、Bemba族のチテメネシステ ムやLozi族の氾濫原での耕作等の生産システムは影響を受け、男性不在により農村地 域の脆弱性が高まる結果となった。一方、ザンビア南部のトンガ族は、ハイブリッド メイズや牛耕等の近代的耕作技術を積極的に導入し、土地制度も共同体的所有制度か ら個人所有へと変化させ、レジリアンスの高さを示した。
1964年の独立以来、UNIP政権は強力に地域開発を推し進め、メイズ生産の補助 や、植民地政府の土地制度を維持する保守的政策を実施した。しかし、食料安全は保 障されず、小規模農民が政府とメイズのみの生産に過度に依存する状態となった。
MMD政権により1991年から2001年までに実施された新リベラル政策は、天 候の不順も災いし、政策や環境変動に対する食料生産システムの脆弱性を増大させ た。しかし、2001年以降現在に至るまで、土地所有のエンパワーメント政策によ り、男性女性ともに土地所有を保証し、地域社会のレジリアンスを再構築するための 政府の介入政策が行われており、国家と世帯の食料安全保障を推進する努力がなされ ている。

キーワード:脆弱性、レジリアンス、土地所有、食料安全保障

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Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series

No. 2008-004

Socio-Ecological Vulnerability and Resilience in an Arena of Rapid Environmental Change:
Community Adaptation to Climate Variability in the Upper Zambezi Floodplain

Lawrence S Flint
Enda Tiers Monde-Programme Energie Dakar, Senegal

June 2008

ABSTRACT
People have made unprecedented demands on ecosystems in recent decades to meet growing demands for food, water, fibre and energy. These demands have placed pressure on ecosystem balances, depleted the ability of the natural environment to replace biocapacity consumed and weakened the capacity to deliver ecosystem services such as purification of air and water, waste disposal and aesthetically pleasing environments. There is an apparent tension between the aspirations of social and economic development and environmental sustainability
Direct drivers of change that engender a reduction in ecosystem goods and services include habitat change, invasive species, over exploitation, pollution and, climate variability and change. These processes threaten to diminish socio-ecological resilience and heighten sensitivity to both environmental and socio-economic change.
This paper seeks to discuss the scientific ways in which socio-ecological vulnerability and resilience can be examined, in particular the inter disciplinarity of approach necessary to address these wide ranging issues. It will also analyse the nature of socio-ecological resilience and adaptation to vulnerability. This is contextualised in a discussion covering the historical and contemporary production of politico-economic and socio-cultural dynamics affecting resilience.
The study considers floodplain ecosystems, sites of human settlement, productivity and the appearance of ‘hydraulic civilisations’. An example discussed here is the Bulozi ‘natural’ floodplain of the Upper Zambezi Valley in western Zambia, currently exhibiting biophysical and socio-economic change. This floodplain was populated by the ancestors of the present Lozi peoples who, using the ecological goods and services offered by the plain, produced a strong and vibrant politico-economy that became dominant in the region, using surplus food with which to specialise, raise an army and take advantage of economic opportunities.
Today Bulozi is an arena of relative underdevelopment and this condition may become exacerbated by increasing climate dynamics, but these act only as additional stressors to socially created vulnerabilities that became entrenched over time. The paper identifies the production of vulnerability in Bulozi and the adaptive capacity required to increase resilience.
It also discusses recent activities in the domain of community adaptation to climate change and concludes that people’s capacity to adapt to exogenous and endogenous pressures and maintain the integrity of the socio-ecological system (SES) depends much on their ability to engage with stressors from a position of autochthonous ‘ownership’. It depends also on their ability to access new capabilities and diversify productive activities so that society can regain a sense of momentum, control and motivation to enhance living standards whilst conserving the integrity of the SES.

Key Words: Vulnerability, resilience, community adaptation, climate change, floodplain, socio-ecological system, ecosystem management

要旨
近年、食料、水、繊維、エネルギーの需要拡大を満たすため、人々はいまだかつてない供給を生態システムから求めるようになった。これらの需要は生態系のバランスに圧力を与え、自然環境が許容量を取り戻す能力を減少させ、大気・水の浄化作用、廃棄物の処理、アメニティ等の生態系サービスを供与する能力を弱体化させた。社会経済開発と環境持続可能性との間に明らかな緊張関係が存在している。
生態系の財とサービスの減少を引き起こした直接的な原因は、生息地の変化、外来種の侵入、過度の収奪、汚染や気候変動と変化などである。これらのプロセスは社会生態的レジリアンス喪失の脅威を与え、環境と社会経済変化の双方に対する感受性を高める。
本報告では、社会経済の脆弱性とレジリアンスを検討する科学的方法、特にこれら広範囲の問題に対する学際的アプローチについて議論する。また、脆弱性に対する社会経済レジリアンスと適応の本質を分析する。レジリアンスに影響を与えている政治経済、社会文化的ネットワークとダイナミズムについて歴史的、現代的生産の文脈の中で議論することによって説明される。経済活動と「河川文明」を擁する人間の居住地域である氾濫原生態システムを研究の対象とする。事例として現在生物物理的、社会経済的変化を示しているザンビア西部ザンベジ河上流渓谷の Bulozi「自然」氾濫原に焦点を当てる。この氾濫原は現在の Lozi民の祖先が居住し、彼らは生態財とサービスを氾濫原から得、強力で活気に満ちた政治経済を生み出してこの地域を独占し、余剰食料を使うことができ、また軍を擁し経済的機会を享受した。
今日、Buloziは低開発の地域とされており、この状況は気候の変動によって悪化しているが、気候変動は長い年月の間に社会的に蓄積された脆弱性に対しては追加の要因となるのみである。本報告では Buloziの脆弱性の原因とレジリアンスを高めるための適応的能力を議論する。
人々が外的内的圧力に対して適応し、社会生態システム(SES)のバランスを維持する能力は、彼らが在地的「所有」の立場から問題に対処する能力に依存している。同時に、社会生態システム(SES)のバランスを保全しながら、生活水準を向上する機運、コントロール、動機の感覚を社会が再び取り戻すことは、現在の生産行為を修正し、生産活動を多様化する彼らの能力に依存している。

キーワード: 脆弱性、レジリアンス、コミュニティの適応、気候変動、氾濫原、社会・生態システム、生態システム管理

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Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series

No. 2008-005

The Livelihood of ‘Escarpment Tonga’: A Case Study of One Village, Southern Zambia

Tetsuya NAKAMURA
Graduate School of Asian and African Area Studies Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan

January 2009

ABSTRACT

In the late 1950s, auge artificial lake (Lake Kariba) was emerged by the construction of ‘the Kariba dam’ at the middle Zambezi River. Over 50,000 'Tonga' people lost their land. Against their will, they were forced to move to a flat plane area along the lake which is called ‘Valley’. People made efforts to overcome the adverse condition in the area by developing a variety of industries closely associated with the Lake Kariba. However, the efforts they made were in vain because of land shortage spurred by rapid population increase and frequent droughts. The unfavorable local economy which was exacerbated by unstable social/economic factors also aggravated the situation. It was said that several thousands households migrated out from the lake side: While a majority moved to the ‘Plateau’ area, a minority shifted to the ‘Escarpment’ area where there are ridges and valleys.
Escarpment land is unsuitable for extensive agricultural production because of limited fertile land and danger of soil erosion. But many of those shifted from the ‘Valley’ have settled there. I have done field-work at one village located an escarpment area in Southern Zambia from August 2006 to June 2007 to examine and analyze the livelihoods of these people.
We observe that they selectively utilize slope as farmland, and diversify their daily activities to use available resources such as lumbering to the maximum. As for access to livelihoods and resources, the ‘pioneer’ families and their relatives have advantage, but it is verified that mutual help relation which extends to out-of-kinship line.

Key Words: Tonga, Migration, Escarpment, Livelihood, Lumbering


要旨

1950年代後半、ザンベジ川の中流域にカリバダムが建設されたことによって巨大な人造湖(カリバ湖)が形成され、5万人以上のトンガの人々の居住地が失われてしまった。湖畔の平地へと追いやられた彼らは、逆境を跳ね返すかのように、カリバ湖と密接に関わりながら様々な産業を発展させていった。しかし、急増する人口、頻発する干ばつによって土地不足が蔓延化し、不安定な社会経済的要因が地域経済を悪化させ、こうした背景のもと、数千世帯が湖畔から再度移住していったと言われている。ほとんどは高地を目指して移り住んでいったが、一部は峡隘(きょうあい)な尾根や渓谷を有する丘陵地を居住地に選んだ。 沃地や広く平らな土地は限られており、傾斜地での耕作は土壌流出を招くため、概して丘陵地は農業に不適な土地であると言えよう。本稿は、2006年8月から2007年6月の10ヶ月間、ザンビア南部の丘陵地に位置する一農村でおこなった実地調査によって得られた資料に基づき作成されたものであり、丘陵地という新たな生態環境の中で人々はどのように生活を営んでいるのか、移住の歴史と社会構造との関連で考察することを目的としている。 そこから見えてくるのは、傾斜地を選択的に農地として使用し、木挽き業に代表されるような地域の資源を最大限利用する生業を多岐に展開しているという、丘陵地で生き抜く人々の姿であった。現在の生業や資源へのアクセスに関して、はじめに入植した草分けとの繋がりを持つ世帯に有利性を認めることができるが、親族関係に限定されない相互扶助的関係も垣間見られたのである。 キーワード: トンガ、移住、丘陵地、生業、木挽き業

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Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series

No. 2008-006

Re-thinking Labour Migration in Relation to Livelihood Diversity in African Rural Area:
A Case Study in Southern Province, Zambia

Chihiro Ito
Graduate School of Asian and African Area Studies (ASAFAS), Kyoto University, Japan

January 2009

ABSTRACT

This paper attempts to 1) describe diversification of economic activities in African rural area, 2) trace and describe labour migration, and 3) analyse the relationship between labour migration and diversified activities in rural society.

In most rural areas of Africa, agriculture remains the main livelihood. However, agricultural production is often supplemented and even sustained by other economic activities in order to cope with variable environmental conditions, and social and economic changes. Labour migration has been considered as one of essential activities to supplement rural society, but we do not know much about the relation between labour migration and other strategies taken inside of the village. This paper has examined the situation of livelihood diversification and its relationship with labour migration in Zambia.

As a result, there are employments, agricultural and non-agricultural wage labour and the coping strategies for drought. But practice of these strategies would be constrained by primary cost, social networks and assets. Access to these strategies was not in uniform. There are differences of livelihood strategies by households.

In regard to labour migration, people can easily migrate without obstacles, thus it has been connected to rural society and economy as an alternative strategy. This character of labour migration was supported by increasing labour demand in neighbouring towns and social network.
Labour migration had an essential role for compensating rural economy in case of distress, however importance and need for it would differ from households, and it had a relation with access to other livelihood strategies practicing inside of the village.

Keywords: Labour migration,・Livelihood diversification,・Coping strategy,・Zambia

要旨:
アフリカ農村部では農業が基盤ではあるが、市場経済の影響やリスクへの対応として農民の生業は多様化してきている。中でも出稼ぎ労働は農村経済を補填する役割を担うものとして注目されてきた。本稿の目的はザンビア農村部において、生業多様化の実態やリスクへの対応を明らかにし、そして特に出稼ぎ労働が持つ役割や影響を農村内の多生業との関わりから明らかにすることにある。

調査の結果、村内雇用労働や農業・農外賃労働、干ばつ時の対応策など様々な生計手段が観察された。しかし、各種の生業へのアクセスは一様ではなく、各世帯の生計戦略の幅に差異が生まれていることも明らかとなった。

これに対し調査地からの出稼ぎ労働は、低コストで容易に行えるため、農村内の生計戦略を代替するものとして農村社会と経済に組み込まれていた。これらが実現した要因として、近隣の都市における非熟練労働の需要増加と、社会的ネットワークによる初期費用の削減などの要因が挙げられる。

調査地における出稼ぎ労働は、干ばつなどの困窮時に容易に行える手段として重要な役割を担っている。しかし、その必要性や重要性は世帯によって異なり、それらは農村内の生計戦略へのアクセスと関連しているといえる。

キーワード: 出稼ぎ労働・生業多様化・生計戦略・ザンビア

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Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series

No. 2009-007

Rural Livelihood Security Assessment for Smallholders Undergoing Economic Changes and Agro-Climatic Events in Central Kenya

Matheaus Kioko KAUTI
Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Tohoku University, Japan

April 2009

ABSTRACT

The implementation of World Bank- and IMF-funded structural adjustment programs of the economy by Government of Kenya negatively affected smallholder farmers’ production due to cost of agricultural inputs rising faster than the prices of agricultural produce. Concurrently, effects of the variability of precipitation patterns intrinsically link in shaping local-level households’ vulnerability.

Drawing from field study data informed by longitudinal methodology of approach on crop variety selection and crisis-coping experiences, the overriding issue addressed in this paper is how smallholder farmers in Central Kenya cope and adapt with the changes. The study provides both place-based and household-based understanding of the livelihood security strategies available to and undertaken by the farmers.

Annual net income levels of 40 sample households are estimated and the production aspect of the household economy classified into five sectors: agricultural, livestock, non-farm, off-farm, and forest product extraction. An operationalization of the notion of livelihood strategies reveals the strategy in which households choose and combine options across the five sectors on the basis of crisis experiences. Examination of smallholders’ crop variety selection identifies a multiplicity of criteria upon which decisions are based. These are grouped into five explanatory factors: geographic, economic, administrative, socio-cultural and agronomic.

The paper argues that an effective understanding of smallholders’ coping and adaptive capabilities has important implications for adaptation policy. It can provide a basis for designing policies aimed at rural livelihood security improvement and also help to facilitate outside planners who engage in food security programs which can be built on existing livelihood strategies.

Keywords: Rural livelihood; Coping strategies; Economic liberalization; Drought; Kenya.

要旨:

ケニア政府による経済の構造調整計画の実施は、農産物価格を凌駕する農業投入財価格の上昇をもたらし、小農民の生産に負の影響を与えた。同時に、降雨パターンの変動もまた地方レベルの世帯の脆弱性の状態に関わりを持っている。

本稿では、作物品種選択と危機対処の経験に関する長期間データの事例分析を通して、ケニア中央部の小農民がこれらの変化にいかに対処・適応しているのかという問題に取り組んだ。本研究は、彼らの取り得るあるいは実際に行っている生計安全保障戦略が、地域的にあるいは世帯レベルでどのように理解できるかを示すものである。

調査対象とした40世帯の年間純所得を評価し、それを構成する経済活動部門を、農業、牧畜、非農業活動、農外活動、林業の5つに分類した。世帯の生計戦略を操作可能な概念とすることで、世帯が危機の経験を生かしこれら5部門の活動をどのように選択し組み合わせているかという、世帯の戦略を明らかにすることができる。

また、作物品種選択を検討することで、意志決定の基礎的な要因が複数あることが明らかになった。すなわち、地理的、経済的、政治的、社会・文化的、作物学的という5つの要因グループである。

本稿は、小農民の対処・適応能力の効果的な理解が政策にとって重要な意味を持つことを示している。 それは農村部の生計の安全保障を改善することを目標とする政策立案のための基礎を提供するものであり、また既存の生計戦略の上に構築される食糧安全保障計画を推進する外部の計画者たちにも参考となると考える。

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Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series

No. 2009-008

Quantifying the Impact of Climatic Change on Yields and Yield Variability of Major Crops and Optimal Land Allocation for Maximizing Food Production in Different Agro-Climatic Zones of Tamil Nadu, India: An Econometric Approach

C.R. Ranganathan
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India

August 2009

ABSTRACT

This paper provides a framework for optimal land use planning in the context of climate change. All agricultural activities are very sensitive to climate change resulting in variability in crop yields. Hence it becomes necessary to study the effect of climate change not only on mean yield but also on variability in yield. The quantitative information so obtained should be used for optimal land allocation in order to utilize natural resources in a judicious way. Previous studies using regression techniques concentrated on the estimation of average productivity only but little attention was given for optimal land allocation to competing crops with climate change induced productivities. The problem becomes more important in the context of gradual decline in available land area for agriculture due to urbanization. The present study focuses on these issues for major crops grown in Tamil Nadu State. It employs econometric modelling for estimating the mean yield and yield variability and also covariance between yields of different crops. The mean yields so obtained which reflect the impact of climate change are then used in multi-objective linear programming models for meeting objectives like maximum food grain production, maximum paddy production and minimization of agricultural land area for maintaining at least the current level of production of crops etc. Finally the study attempts to link the optimal food grain production with the projected population of Tamil Nadu for 2021 and 2026 to determine the quantum of food grain availability per individual. The study shows that precipitation and temperature have varying effect on productivity and variability of crops. Trend has positive impact on most of the crops. Also, climate change, as dictated by HADCM3A2a scenario, will have modest impact on crop productivities across the five zones of Tamil Nadu. Zones where paddy is grown traditionally may witness modest increase in productivity followed by increase in variability while many other crops may have decrease in productivity and there is no uniformity in changes in their variability. The study indicates that when land is the only constraint, with climate change induced productivities, optimal allocation of crop area will result in increased production of food grain. These results will be useful for policy makers in finding the gap between supply and demand of food grain for projected population.

要旨

本研究では、気候変動下での最適土地利用計画のフレームワークを提供する。気候変動が農業生産へ与える影響は多方面にわたる。すべての農業生産活動は非常に気候変動に対して敏感であり、作物収量の変動を伴う。よって、気候変動の影響を平均収量のみではなく、変動について研究することが必要である。定量的な情報は自然資源の賢明な利用と土地配分の最適化のために利用されるべきである。回帰分析を使った過去の研究では、平均生産性にのみ注目し、気候変動にともなう作物生産性の競合による最適土地配分にはあまり注目していなかった。都市化によって農業用地が減少している状況では、この問題はさらに重要度を増している。本研究では、この問題をタミルナドゥ州で生産されている主要穀物について検討する。計量経済分析により、平均収量と変動収量、そして異なる作物収量の共分散を推計する。気候変動の影響を反映している推計された平均収量は、多目的線形計画モデルによって最大穀物収量、最大米収量、現在の作物生産を維持するための最小農業用地などの目的を達成するために利用される。最後に、本研究では、2021年と2026年のタミルナドゥ州の人口予測と最適食料穀物生産をリンクさせて、一人当たりの可能食料穀物量を決定する。研究の結果、降雨量と温度は生産性と穀物の変動にさまざまな影響を与え、またHADCM3A2aシナリオによる気候変動は、タミルナドゥ州の5区域での作物生産性への影響は小さかった。伝統的な稲作地区では変動の増加と共に生産性も増加した。一方、多くの他の穀物の生産性は減少し、同一的な変化はなかった。土地のみが制約である場合、気候変動による生産性の変化により、作物の最適配分により食料穀物の生産は増加する。これらの結果は政策決定者にとって人口予測下での穀物の供給と需要のギャップを知るために有効である。

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Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series

No. 2009-009

Vulnerability of Food Production Systems of Small-Scale Farmers to Climate Change
in Southern Zambia: A Search for Adaptive Strategies

Gear M. Kajoba
Department of Geography, University of Zambia

December 2009

ABSTRACT

The overall aim of the research was to assess the vulnerability of the food production system of small-scale farmers in Kafwambila area in Sinazongwe district to climate change; assess their perceptions; impacts and short term coping strategies and search for long term adaptive strategies.

Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected through semi-structured interviews with 32 small-scale farmers including key informants; and two Focus Group Discussions were attended by a total of 44 participants.

The study has shown that although the small-scale farmers are not aware of the concept of climate change, they experience its impacts through frequent droughts and occasional floods. The respondents indicated that climatic variability increasingly impacts negatively on food production, leading to crop failure of their staple cereals of bulrush millet, sorghum and maize.

The major coping strategy (apart from crop combinations or inter cropping) is the establishment of a livelihoods circuit, in which farmers sell some of their livestock to traders, in order to raise cash with which to buy fish from Lake Kariba; then they travel to the plateau to sell the fish, raise money to buy maize grain from farmers on the plateau, or exchange fish with maize grain. Then, the farmers return with grain to the valley, grind it to obtain maize meal, and repeat the cycle when need arises.

Although the farmers stated that they do not know what to do in order to make long term adaptation to climate change, they called for the government and other stakeholders to establish an irrigation scheme to tap water from Lake Kariba; provide micro-credit and improved seed varieties that are drought tolerant, early maturing and high yielding.

Farmers also requested the government to construct passable roads that can link their remote area to the plateau in order to facilitate trade in grain, livestock and fish.

要旨

本研究の目的は、シナゾングェ県カファンビラ地区における、気候変動に対する小規模農家の食料生産システムの脆弱性を評価し、気候変動の影響および短期的対処戦略とともに長期的適応戦略のための農民の知見を評価することである。調査では、32世帯を対象とした半構造化インタビューと情報提供者を含む計44人が参加した2回のグループ討論から定性的、定量的データを収集した。小規模農家は気候変動の概念についての理解はないものの、度重なる旱ばつや時折生じる洪水からその影響を経験していた。回答者によれば、気候変動は急激に食料生産に大きな負の影響を与えており、トウジンビエ、ソルガム、メイズ等主食作物の不作をもたらしている。主な対処戦略(作物の組合せや間作の他)として以下のような生業活動があげられる。まず、家畜を売却した現金でカリバ湖畔で魚を購入する。購入した魚は、高地へ運ばれ、メイズを購入するために現金化されたり、メイズと交換されたりする。持ち帰ったメイズは製粉され食糧となる。農民は必要に応じてこのような生業活動を繰り返している。地域の農民は気候変動に対する長期的な対策は知らないと回答したものの、カリバ湖から灌漑用水を引く事業を設立し、小規模金融と旱ばつ耐性がある早生の高収量改良品種を供与してもらうために政府と関係者に働きかけた。また、農民達は政府に対して穀物、家畜、魚の交易を容易にするために、彼らが居住する遠隔地と高地をつなぐ道路の建設を要求した。

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Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series

No. 2009-010

Resilience of Rural Households and Communities to Economic Shocks, HIV/AIDS and Recurrent Droughts: The Case of Households and Communities in the Mwami Area, Chipata, Zambia

Chileshe Mulenga, PhD.
Institute of Economic and Social Research, University of Zambia

December 2009

ABSTRACT

Rural economies in sub-Saharan African countries that undertook economic policy reforms under the auspices of International Financial Institutions have been described as “harsh, challenging, hard and difficult’. These economies have been characterized by decline and increased impoverishment of their inhabitants. Such outcomes are at variance with what was expected of the policy reforms and what has been attributed to them at the national level. At the national level, the policy reforms have been credited with stabilizing the national economies and even robust growth averaging 5% over the last decade.

Field investigations in the Mwami Area of Chipata in Eastern Zambia and an extensive review of literature confirms the experience of economic decline and growing impoverishment of rural households and communities reported in all sub-Saharan African countries that reformed their economies with the support of the International Financial Institutions. Economic policy reform in Zambia seem to have helped produce a harsh rural economic environment characterized by economic decline and increased poverty. These unexpected outcomes have been attributed to the neglect of public investment in agriculture and rural development. The situation has, however, been worsened by failure of rural households to adapt to the triple shocks of economic reform, HIV/AIDS and environmental change.

Failure of rural households to adapt to the liberalized agricultural regime has been due to the economic reforms having coincided with recurrent droughts and shocks emanating from the adverse effects of HIV/AIDS. Recurrent droughts in the 2000/2001 and 2001/2002 agricultural seasons forced most households in the Mwami Area of Chipata to exhaust their stores, including livestock, which jeopardized their future recovery. The increased cost of agricultural in-puts especially hybrid maize seeds and fertilizers worsened the situation further, as it forced most households to reduce the amount of land devoted to maize, their main staple and commercial crop. For the households touched by the HIV/AIDS pandemic, the grave economic situation was worsened by loss of their most productive labour to ill health and deaths. This state of affairs set off a process of impoverishment and marginalization from the main stream national economy and created a general sense of despair.

To make ends meet, most households in the Mwami area had turned to direct exploitation of natural resources, especially the forest and wildlife resources. These resources were, however, being exploited with basic technologies, which neither enhance productivity nor protect or ameliorate environmental degradation. Thus, the livelihoods based on direct exploitation of natural resources with basic technologies are not likely to be sustainable, especially in the light of the environmental change, characterized by increasing surface temperatures and reduced rainy seasons. Measures are therefore needed to help the rural households in the Mwami area and elsewhere in rural Zambia to adapt to the liberalized economic environment, changing environmental conditions and HIV/AIDS.

Keywords: resilience, HIV/AIDS, rural households, community, economic reform, Eastern Zambia

経済的ショック、HIV/AIDS、旱ばつへの農村世帯とコミュニティのレジリアンス―ザンビア・チパタ県ムワニ地区の世帯とコミュニティの事例

ザンビア大学社会経済研究所
Chileshe L. Mulenga

要旨

国際金融機関の指導の下に経済政治改革を実施したサブ・サハラアフリカ諸国の農村経済は、「厳しい、障壁がある、難しい、困難である」等と言及されてきた。これら農村経済は、衰退と住民の貧困増大を経験してきた。その結果は、政策改革で期待された結果とは異なり、国家レベルではその改革のせいだと考えられていたものとも異なっていた。国レベルでは、政治改革は国家経済を安定化させ、過去10年の間に平均5%の安定した成長を達成させることに貢献した。

東部ザンビアのチパタ市にあるムワニ地区でのフィールド調査と文献調査の結果は、国際金融機関の支援によって経済改革を行ったすべてのサブ・サハラアフリカ諸国で報告されたと同様の経済的衰退、地域世帯とコミュニティの貧困の拡大を明らかにするものであった。ザンビアにおける経済政策改革によって、地域の経済環境は経済後退と貧困の拡大という結果をもたらした。これら予期せぬ結果は、農業と地域開発への公共投資の軽視が原因であった。しかし、この状況は経済改革、HIV/AIDS、環境変化の3重苦へ地域世帯が適応できなかったことによってさらに悪化した。

農村世帯が農業自由化に対応できなかったことは、近年の旱ばつとHIV/AIDSの負の影響から派生したショックが経済改革と同時に進行したことによる。2000/2001 年及び2001/2002年の農作期に起こった旱ばつによって、チパタ市ムワニ地区のほとんどの世帯の食料庫が空になり、家畜は回復の目途が立たないほどに打撃を受けた。ハイブリッド・トウモロコシ種子と肥料などの資材価格の上昇は、さらに状況を悪化させ、ほとんどの世帯は主食と換金作物であるトウモロコシの作付面積を減少させた。またHIV/AIDS患者が出た世帯では、病気や死亡によって最も生産的な労働力の損失というさらなる経済状況の悪化が起こった。この状況は、貧困のプロセスへ移行し、国家経済の主流から取り残されることを意味しており、失望感をつのらせた。

この結果、ムワニ地区のほとんどの世帯は森林資源や野生動物などの天然資源採集へ転換した。これらの採集は、伝統的技術に依存し、生産性も高くなく環境の荒廃を保全・改修するものではなかった。これらの天然資源採集は、温度の上昇や雨季の減少等の環境変動下ではとくに持続的ではない。ムワニ地区のみならずザンビアの農村世帯が自由化した経済環境、環境変動、HIV/AIDSなどへ適応するための支援が必要とされる。

キーワード: レジリアンス、HIV/AIDS、農村世帯、コミュニティ、経済改革、東部ザンビア

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Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series

No. 2009-011

An Historical Analysis of Vulnerability and Resilience in a Semi-Arid Region of Zambia

Bennett Siamwiinde Siamwiza, PhD.
Department of History, University of Zambia

December 2009

ABSTRACT

This article is about the Valley Tonga’s resilience to ecological vulnerability often induced by near chronic drought conditions that have, over centuries, characterised their region and occasionally by flooding of the Zambezi; prior to 1958 and of Lake Kariba after 1958. The Valley Tonga are the inhabitants of the Gwembe Valley, a trough sandwiched by unbroken range of escarpments on the south and north of the Zambezi river. The valley located in the middle Zambezi River basin in Southern Province of Zambia. Since long time ago, this region has been subject to hunger and famine largely because of its semi – arid nature. The article explores the various mechanisms the Valley Tonga have applied and exploited to survive their unfriendly environment.

The article suggests that the Tonga’s resilience has largely depended on their ability to forecast good and bad weather patterns ahead. This ability to interpret climatic changes of their environment has enabled them to prepare ahead of an expected negative eventualities. The Valley Tonga, the article explains, have remained in the valley despite chronic environmental setbacks, often leading to food crises, for several reasons. The bush has been a granary as it has provided them with food in bad and even good times. They have also managed to live in the environment, outsiders have perceived as notorious, because they have cultivated economic and social networks based on the moral economy paradigm. The valley Tonga have exploited even seemingly negative occurrences such as disastrous floods to their advantage; receding flood regime created an opportunity for winter or dry crop cultivation. The introduction of colonial regime at the turn of the twentieth century, added yet another dimension to the Tonga’s survival strategies. Labour migration, colonial intervention through famine relief and introduction of commercial and fishing upon the formation of Lake Kariba became a source of their resilience to ecological shocks.

Key words: Resilience, Vulnerability, Semi-aridity, famine survival networks.

半乾燥熱帯地域の旱ばつの影響と生存戦略―南部ザンビア・グウェンベ渓谷の事例

ザンビア大学歴史学部
B. S. Siamwiza
Department of History, University of Zambia

要旨

  本稿では、生態系の脆弱性に対する低地トンガのレジリアンスについて言及する。それは、常襲的旱ばつ状態によって何世紀にもわたって引き起こされてきたものであり、1958年以前は時々起こるザンベジ河の洪水、そして1958年以降はカリバ湖の洪水とともにこの地域を特徴づけてきた。低地トンガとはグウェンベ渓谷の居住者であり、そこはザンベジ河の南部と北部の丘陵地の切れ目のない連なりに挟まれた盆地である。グウェンベ渓谷はザンビア南部州のザンベジ河岸の中流部に位置する。以前から、この地域は半乾燥地であることから飢えと飢饉にさらされてきた。本稿では厳しい環境の中で生存するために低地トンガが適用し利用してきた、さまざまな仕組みを調査する。

 トンガのレジリアンスは主に彼らが良い天候と悪い天候を事前に察知する能力に依存していることを本稿は示唆する。環境における気候の変動を解釈する能力によって、彼らは期待される負の出来事が起こる前に準備することを可能とするのである。本稿が述べる低地トンガは、常襲的な環境の妨げにもかかわらず渓谷に居住しつづけ、しばしばいくつかの理由によって食料危機に直面した。潅木林は食料倉庫であり、天候が悪いときにも良いときにも食料を彼らに供給した。そしてかろうじてこの環境で生存を続けた。モラルエコノミーを基盤とした社会経済的ネットワークを構築していた彼らは外部者からは有名であった。低地トンガは壊滅的な洪水のような一見して負の出来事も彼らの強みとして利用した。洪水が後退したあとは、乾季栽培の機会が訪れた。20世紀初頭の植民地政府の下では、トンガは別の生存戦略の側面を追加した。労働移動、植民地政府の飢饉救済を通じた介入、カリバ湖形成後の商業的漁業の導入などが彼らの生態系のショックに対するレジリアンスの源となった。

キーワード: レジリアンス、脆弱性、半乾燥、生態環境、飢饉生存ネットワーク

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Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series

No. 2009-012

Ecological Adversity and Food Supply in Northwest Zambia

Chewe M. Chabatama, Ph.D.
Department of History, University of Zambia

December 2009

ABSTRACT

Most agricultural and food security studies on Zambia have concentrated on maize and other cash crops, and surplus maize producing provinces such as Central, Lusaka and Southern. Non-cash crops such as cassava, millet and sorghum, which were staple food crops for the people of northwest Zambia, have strangely been ignored by most researchers. As a marginal maize producer, North-Western province has been ignored, condemned and marginalized by both scholars and state officials, respectively. However, this paper is cognizant of the stark fact that cassava, finger and bulrush millet, sorghum and sweet potatoes have provided and continue to provide food security for the indigenous people of Northwest Zambia. North-Western province possesses enormous agricultural and economic potential. This paper examines food supply in the North-Western province of Zambia in the midst of adverse ecological conditions. It specifically considers the relevance of local ecological and climatic conditions to local food supply, and the survival strategies food insecure households have adopted in their quest for survival. The paper considers changing ecological disasters and changing survival strategies.

Key words: Ecological adversity; Food security; Northwest Zambia; Environment and ecology; Food security forecast systems; Coping strategies; Traditional land use systems; Sorghum-based agricultural system; Cassava-based agricultural system; Indigenous staple food crops; Diversified agricultural economy; Viable; Nutritional requirements

要旨

ザンビア農業と食料安全保障に関する研究の多くは、トウモロコシとその他の換金作物に集中しており、トウモロコシ生産に余剰のあるセントラル州、ルサカ、南部州などに関するものが多い。換金作物ではないキャッサバ、ミレット、ソルガム等は、北西ザンビアにおける主食であるにもかかわらず注目する研究者は少なかった。北西州のトウモロコシ生産は少ないため、研究者や政府担当者から無視され、非難され、また取り残されてきた。本論文では、キャッサバ、シコクビエ、トウジンビエ、ソルガム、サツマイモが、有史以前から北西ザンビアの人々の食料安全保障を担ってきたという明確な事実を再認識する。北西州の農業と経済には高い潜在力が存在する。本稿では、厳しい生態条件の中にあるザンビア北西州における食料供給を検討する。特に地域の生態気候条件に適応した食料供給、そして生存のために食料不足世帯が対処する生存戦略を考察しながら、生態学的災害の変化と生存戦略の変遷を考える。

キーワード: 生態環境、食料安全保障、北西ザンビア、食料安全保障予測システム、対処戦略、伝統的土地利用システム、伝統的主食作物、農業経済の多様化、栄養要求量

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Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series

No. 2011-013

Resilience as a Way of Life in Gwembe Valley

Elizabeth Colson, Professor Emerita
University of California at Berkeley

April 2011

ABSTRACT

Harsh environments test human ingenuity. Survival requires adaptability which means that people must be flexible, innovative, versatile and self-reliant. For the last millennium, Tonga-speaking people have inhabited Gwembe Valley in southern Zambia and nearby Zimbabwe. Over the years they created a mixed economy that allowed them to survive drought, floods, and other challenges. Survival techniques included multi-cropping, development of drought-resistant strains of crops suitable to local conditions, and the cultivation of social ties that gave access to the resources of adjacent regions.

Keywords: Environmental Stress, Drought, Survival Techniques, Innovation, Resettlement, Experimentation, Social Networks, Trade, Gwembe Tonga

要旨

厳しい環境は人間の創造力を試している.生存には適応能力が必要とされ,人々は柔軟で,革新的で,融通が効き,自立的でなくてはならない.過去千年の間,トンガの人々はザンビア南部のグウェンベ渓谷とジンバブウェに暮らしていた.長い年月をかけて,彼らは複合的な経済を作り出し,干ばつや洪水,その他の困難を生き抜いてきた.彼らの生存技術には,複数の作物を栽培することや,地域の状況に適し耐乾性の強い作物を栽培すること,そして近隣地域の資源にアクセスするための社会的紐帯の構築などが挙げられる.

キーワード:環境ストレス,干ばつ,生存技術,イノベーション,実験,社会ネットワーク,交易,グウェンベトンガ,再定住

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Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series

No. 2011-014

Diversified Livelihood of Peasant Women in Southern Zambia

Noriko NARISAWA
Graduate School of Asian and African Area Studies (ASAFAS), Kyoto University

October 2011

ABSTRACT

In the field of gender and development studies, it has been admitted that African peasant women have considerable autonomy for agricultural production and managing household consumption, however at the same time, their access to resources that secure their livelihood is restricted by household gender division of labour and power structure and that increases their vulnerability.

Recently, parallel with evolving rural household livelihood diversification in Africa, new complex livelihood patterns among women who had engaged in subsistence agriculture and domestic work has been brought to light by scholars. Peasant women are now generally engaging in and expanding their non-farming activities and earning cash. It is gradually becoming apparent that women’s earnings are now crucial for feeding and caring for household members and for supporting the rural economy.

In this regards, scholars have pointed out two main issues concerning women’s individual autonomy and vulnerability. First, women earning an income could lead to conflict with men who are unwilling to accept it because of concerns pertaining to neglect of domestic works and erosion of men’s authority by female earners. Secondly, women’s earnings are very likely to flow back into the household. This trend means that women merely extend their domestic responsibilities as caregivers of their families and they bear the great burden of labour. Therefore, it must be noted that access to resource itself does not always result in positive effects on women’s empowerment and rapid change in indigenous gender relations might cause even more severe situations for women.

This paper aims to show, by clarifying cash-earning activities and casual visiting activities of Tonga people in southern Zambia, that Tonga women have expanded their socio-economic activities not by claiming drastic change of gender role but behaving with rather quite manner using indigenous social relations.

Keywords: Gender, Livelihood diversification, Cash earning, Casual visiting, Tonga.

要旨

ジェンダーと開発に関する研究領域ではこれまで,アフリカの小農女性は農業生産と家計消費に関し高い自律性を有するが,一方で,家族内における役割分業と権力関係により女性の資源へのアクセスは男性に比べて制限されており,そのことが女性の脆弱性の増大につながっているとされてきた.

近年,小農世帯における生業活動が多様化する中で,これまで家族のための自給用作物生産と家庭内労働に従事してきた女性の活動にも,多様な非農業活動を展開し現金を稼得するといった変化がみられている.女性による現金稼得は,各世帯の生存レベルで重要な役割を担っており,ひいては農村経済全体を下支えしている実態が明らかとなってきている.

ただし,世帯内における個人の自律性と脆弱性の視点から女性による現金稼得活動の展開に着目した先行研究では,以下の問題点が指摘されてきた.第一に,家庭内の役割放棄や夫の威信への脅威などを理由に,女性の活動が男性側に受容されにくく社会的軋轢を生じやすいこと,第二に,女性は稼ぎの大半を家族の食料や日用品の購入に充てており,それは女性に社会文化的に割り当てられた再生産労働に関わる義務の延長と労働の過重化がもたらされたにすぎないという指摘である.従って,女性による現金やその他資源へのアクセスの実現が単に彼女たちのエンパワーメントを保障するわけではなく,既存のジェンダー関係の急激な変革はかえって女性に厳しい状況をもたらす可能性があることに留意する必要がある.

本稿では,ザンビア南部に居住するトンガ女性の現金稼得活動と短期訪問活動の事例から,女性たちがジェンダー役割の抜本的な変革を求めるのではなく,既存の社会関係を利用したより穏やかな仕方で社会経済活動の領域を拡大している様相を提示する.

キーワード:ジェンダー,生業多様化,現金稼得,短期訪問,トンガ

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Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series

No. 2012-015

The Importance of Sweet Potatoes in Rural Villages in Southern Province, Zambia

Hidetoshi MIYAZAKI and Yudai ISHIMOTO
Research Institute for Humanity and Nature

March 2012

ABSTRACT

Stable maize production and increased productivity are important for improved food security in Zambia. Because most farmers cultivate maize under rain-fed agriculture, however, a maize monoculture is vulnerable to drought or excessive rainfall. Increasing the diversification of crops and crop varieties is therefore important to achieve food security in the face of a changing climate. The sweet potato is an important secondary food in Zambia and has great potential both as a crop for consumption and as a source of income. The aim of the study was to determine farmers’ familiarity with sweet potato varieties and their features and to clarify production and consumption patterns in a rural area in Southern Province, Zambia. Field studies and farmer interviews were conducted at three sites. Farmers in the study area planted sweet potato in both the rainy and dry seasons, but sweet potato production varied between planting seasons and among the three study sites. As a group, farmers were able to identify a total of 22 sweet potato varieties, but many farmers were not able to identify a single variety, and only 10 of the 22 identified varieties were actually cultivated in the study area. Sweet potato production was much greater at one site. Further study of some households at this site indicated that sweet potato tubers were consumed about twice a week, most commonly for breakfast. Consumption was highest during and immediately after the harvest and then gradually decreased. Sweet potato leaves were rarely consumed. Annual sweet potato sales per person generated sufficient income at this site to purchase enough mealie-meal (a local staple food) to feed 7.4 adults for a year.

Keywords: Food security, Crop diversification, Food consumption, Cash income, Tuber crop

要旨

ザンビアにおける食料安全保障を改善するためには、安定したメイズ生産と生産性の向上が重要である。しかし、多くの農民は天水農業下でメイズを栽培しており、メイズに偏重した作付けは干ばつや過度の降雨に脆弱である。したがって、気候変動に直面しながら食料安全保障を成し遂げるには、作物の多様性を増すことが重要となる。サツマイモは自家消費用食料、ならびに世帯の現金収入源として大きな可能性があるといわれている。そこで、本研究では、ザンビア南部州農村地帯の3サイトにおいて、サツマイモ品種についての農民の知識を理解すること、また、サツマイモの生産と消費を明らかにすることを目的とした。

サツマイモは雨季、乾季ともに栽培されているが、その栽培割合は季節間、サイト間で異なっている。農民へのインタビューの結果、22種類ものサツマイモ品種があることが判明したが、彼らの多くは1種類も回答することができなかった。また、確認された22種類のうち栽培されていたのは10種類に過ぎなかった。調査した3サイトのうち1サイトでは、特にサツマイモ生産が盛んにおこなわれていたが、そのサイトでのさらなる調査の結果、サツマイモの塊根は主に朝食として利用されており、1年間の全食事を通じてみると、1週間に2回程度消費されていた。消費は収穫直後に最も高く、徐々に減少した。サツマイモの葉は、ほとんど消費されていないこともわかった。サツマイモ販売による売り上げ額は高く、1年間当たりの売り上げで大人7.4人分の主食(メイズの粗挽き粉)を購入できることがわかった。

キーワード: 食料安全保障, 作物多様化, 食料消費, 現金稼得, 塊茎作物

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Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series

No. 2012-016

Historical Change of Neighborhood Community and Marriage Range of Gwembe Tonga in Southern Zambia

Yudai ISHIMOTO and Hidetoshi MIYAZAKI
Research Institute for Humanity and Nature

March 2012

ABSTRACT

Social capital including social network is an important component of human resilience, i.e. the social capacity to respond to change (Walker et al. 2006). But social capital changes over time and it is important to understand social networks as evolving rather than static. This requires some understanding of the history of present communities and how their networks relate to one another and to those living elsewhere.

In southern Zambia, 57,000 of Gwembe Tonga people were resettled involuntarily with the construction of Kariba Dam on the Zambezi River (Scudder, 2005). They refer to their previous residential area now covered by Lake Kariba as Matongo. To understand how social capital has been influenced by construction of Kariab Dam, this study looks (1) at the transitional history of several cisi, (2) and then analyzes the present range of marriage of their members.

Resettled people have continued to migrate as resettled area degraded. They have also continued to reconstruct or form new social networks to meet current contingencies. This is reflected in marriage alliance. Prior to resettlement, most marriages were within the neighborhood (cisi). Thereafter, resettled people began to intermarry with people in their new vicinities. Since then people continue to move to new areas and the range of potential marriage partners continue to change.

Keywords: cisi (the neighborhood), Dam construction, Range of marriage, Resettlement, Establishment of village

要旨

社会ネットワークをはじめとする社会関係資本は,人間のレジリアンスの重要な構成要素の1つであり,環境変動へ対応するための社会的基盤となる。しかし社会関係資本は時間経過とともに変容するため,社会ネットワークを静的なものとしてではなく,変化するものとの前提に立つことが理解のために重要である。そのためには,現在のコミュニティーの歴史を理解し,人々のネットワークが周囲といかに関与するか把握することが求められる。

ザンビア南部では,ザンベジ川沿いのカリバダム建設に伴い約6万のトンガ人が強制移住させられた。彼らの出身地は,現在カリバ湖に覆われる,マトンゴ地域である。本件研究の目的は,ダム建設による社会関係資本への影響を把握するため,(1) 旧地縁集団(cisi)ごとの来歴,すなわち村の再定住プロセスを明らかにし,(2) 現在の通婚圏を考察することである。

カリバダム建設は周辺地域の人々の生活に,直後のみならず,現在まで影響し続けている。特に,強制移住をさせられた人々は,生計環境の悪化によって,いまだに再移住を行う。彼らは,社会ネットワークを新たに構築し,再構築する。これは通婚圏に影響を及ぼす。ダム建設以前,人々は当時の地縁集団 (cisi) 内で配偶者を見つけ,結婚した。その後,移住を強制された人々は同一cisiの成員ではない,新たな隣人との婚姻を開始した。以降,人々は再移住を続け,通婚圏は更なる変化を続ける。

キーワード: 旧地縁集団(cisi),ダム建設,通婚圏,再定住,村設立

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Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series

No. 2012-017

Nutrient Intake, Physical Activity, and Travel Patterns of Adults Living in Contrasting Ecological Zones in Rural Zambia during the Less Labor-intensive Season for Farming

Sayuri KON
Hokkaido University

Thamana LEKPRICHAKUL
Research Institute for Humanity and Nature

Taro YAMAUCHI
Hokkaido University

March 2012

ABSTRACT

Objectives: To reveal the differences of food consumption, physical activity, and travel patterns among contrasting ecological zones and between sexes in the Southern province of Zambia, and to determine whether the mechanism of sustaining nutritional status differs in each zone.

Subjects and Method: A total of 26 men and 30 women aged 18 years and above, living in 3 zones (Lowland, Hillside, and Upland) were examined. Body measurements, a dietary survey using a weighed-food method, a physical activity survey using an accelerometer, and a travel patterns using a portable GPS were conducted.

Results: Although daily energy intake did not differ between the 3 groups for either sex, the proportions of specific food groups contributing to the intakes of energy and macronutrients were significantly different in all zones. Subjects in the Lowland group had a high proportion of fish intake, and those in the Upland group tended to consume a high proportion of roots and tubers. Sex difference in the proportional contribution of food groups for energy and nutrient intakes was identified only in the Lowland group. With regard to physical activity and travel patterns, only traveled radius was significantly different between the 3 groups. The Lowland group had the largest sex difference for energy balance, while the Upland group had the smallest of the 3.

Conclusions: The findings suggest that the factors affecting the energy intake and expenditure in adult villagers differed in every zone. Furthermore, it also showed that each group has different characteristic of lifestyle between the sexes.

Keywords: Nutritional Status, Dietary Intake, Physical Activity, Behavioral Pattern, Less Labor-intensive Season for Farming

要旨

ザンビア南部州の生態学的に異なる3地域(Lowland、Hillside、Upland)に居住する成人において、農閑期における地域間および男女間の食事・身体活動・行動パターンの違いを検討した。

男女ともに、体格およびエネルギー摂取量において有意な地域差は認められなかった。しかし、食品群別の摂取割合は地域間で異なっており、Lowland男女では魚類の摂取割合が高く、Upland男女では根茎類の摂取割合が高いことが明らかとなった。

身体活動はすべての地域の男女で「活動的」と判定された。男女ともに総エネルギー消費量、身体活動レベル、歩数、総移動距離においては地域差が認められなかったが、行動半径においてのみ有意な地域差がみられ、Hillside男女が大きかった。

エネルギー出納に地域差は見られなかったものの食事内容と活動内容においては違いがみられたことから、地域ごとにエネルギー出納を適正に保つための戦略が異なることが示唆された。また副業を営む地域では日常の活動に性差が生じやすく、農業に従事する地域では男女類似した活動パターンであるというように、男女の役割分担に地域差があることが示された。

キーワード:体格,栄養摂取,身体活動,行動パターン,農閑期

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Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series

No. 2012-018

Consumption Smoothing and the Role of Wild Food Items in Rural Zambia

Akinori KITSUKI and Takeshi SAKURAI
Hitotsubashi University

March 2012

ABSTRACT

The objective of this study is to investigate how farmers smooth their consumption against fluctuating agricultural income, focusing on the composition of consumption and the role of wild food items. We use household survey data collected over a 2-year period from November 2007 to October 2009 in rural Zambia, in which extremely heavy rainfall in December 2007 caused a significant negative shock in agricultural production, the most important income source of the farmers in the study site. We find that farmers smoothed their consumption levels of staple foods, but did not smooth those of animal and fish products, processed non-staple food, and non-food items. It means that farmers used the latter as buffers against fluctuating income. Cash purchases of staple foods, and the receipt of staple foods as gift and food aid played a critical role in smoothing consumption levels of staple foods. Wild food items collected from the bush were also important in consumption smoothing complementary to purchased, gifted, aided staple foods.

Key Words: Consumption Smoothing, Agricultural Production Shock, Wild Food Items, Food Aid, Zambia

要旨

この研究の目的は、農業収入の変動に対して農民がどのように消費を平準化しているかという点について、消費の内訳や野生食物の役割に焦点をあてて解明することにある。本稿では、2007年11月から2009年10月の2年間にわたりザンビアの農村で集めた家計調査データを利用する。調査期間中の2007年12月に非常な豪雨が発生し、調査地の農家にとってもっとも重要な収入源である農業の生産が顕著に減少した。分析の結果、農家は主食の消費水準を平準化していたが、動物・魚介類、主食以外の加工食品、非食料の消費は平準化していなかった。このことは、農民は後者を収入変動の際のバッファとして使っていることを意味する。現金による主食食料の購入、贈与や援助による主食食料の受け取りも主食消費の平準化に不可欠の役割を果たしていた。野外で採取した野生食物は、購入食料、贈与食料、援助食料などと補完的に食料消費の平準化に重要な役割をしていた。

キーワード:消費平準化、農業生産ショック、野生食物、食料援助、ザンビア

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Working Paper on Social-Ecological Resilience Series

No. 2014-019

Dietary Habit of Rural Tonga in Southern Province, Zambia : The Seasonal, Locational Transition

Takehiro YAMAMOTO
The Centre for African Area Studies, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan,

Yudai ISHIMOTO
Tottori University, Tottori, Japan,

Hidetoshi MIYAZAKI
Research Institute for Humanity and Nature (RIHN), Kyoto, Japan,

Chieko UMETSU,
Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan

August 2014

Abstract

Grasping dietary habit is needed in the present, when the globalization has spread broadly into African rural community. The study aims to understanding the dietary habit in rural Tonga community near Lake Kariba, Southern Province, Zambia. Dietary research was conducted at three sites with difference in elevation mainly from May 2009 to May 2010, and additionally from Oct. to Nov. 2013. The data has been analyzed on the basis on appearance frequency of each food and food group especially focusing on main material of side dish. The results are following through analysis on contribution of each food to dietary habit with regard for seasonality and locality.

Frequency of meal with fish is high in Site A near the lake, while low in Site B and C distant from the lake. Frequency of meal with vegetable without legume is low in comparatively dry Site A, whereas high in comparatively humid Site B and C where vegetable without legume is actively cultivated to sell to neighboring market. Frequency of meal with gathered plant is high in Site B where is thinly populated and retains shrub land; people can utilize gathered plants through a whole year. Meanwhile its frequency peaks in Site A and C during only rainy season when harvest of vegetable decreases and edible plants grow mainly. That is, contribution by each food to dietary habit changes depending on sites and seasons.

Key Words: Dietary habit, Food culture, Locality, Seasonality, Tonga.

要旨

 アフリカ農村社会にまでグローバル化が進行するなかで、現代における食生活の把握が求められている。本稿は、ザンビア南部州のカリバ湖に近いトンガ農村部における食生活の実態を把握することを目的とする。食事調査は、標高の異なる3つのサイトにおいて、まず2009年5月から 2010年5月まで13か月間、補足的に2013年10月から11月までおこなわれた。食生活の分析は、調査結果のうち特に副食の材料に注目し、各食品や食品群ごとの登場頻度をあらわすグラフを用い、補足調査の情報を加えながらおこなった。

 各食品が地域の食生活に占める貢献の度合いを、季節性や地域性に配慮しつつ分析をおこなった結果、以下のようなことがあきらかになった。

 湖に近いサイトAでは魚の利用割合が高く、湖から離れたサイトBおよびCでは低い。比較的乾燥したサイトAではマメ類を除く農作物の利用割合が低く、対して比較的湿潤であるサイトBおよびCでは、マメ類を除く農作物は近隣の市場での販売を目的とした栽培も盛んであり、利用割合が高い。人口が少なく利用可能な叢林の多いサイトBでは採集物の利用割合が他サイトに比べ高く、年を通しての利用がみられる一方、サイトAおよびCでは、野菜類の収穫が減り、調理可能な採集物の生育が集中する雨季にのみ利用割合が高まる。このように、食生活への各食品の貢献の度合いには、サイト・季節によって違いがあらわれていた。

キーワード:食生活、季節性、地域性、食文化、トンガ。


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